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4 May 1997
Source: Printed publication, 161 pp.

The document is divided into this introductory section, five chapters and glossary, as listed in the Contents. The complete document may be downloaded as a single file (text 429K, with 12 figures 339K), exclusive of hyperlinked photographs.

# Space Handbook

## A War Fighter's Guide to Space

### Volume One
·

Prepared by

Maj Michael J. Muolo
Air University Air Command and Staff College

Compiled by

Maj Richard A. Hand

Edited by

Maj Richard A. Hand
Maj Bonnie Houchen
Maj Lou Larson

### AU-18

Air University Press
Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama 36112-6428

December 1993

###

Disclaimer

This publication was produced in the Department of Defense school environment in the interest of academic freedom and the advancement of national defense-related concepts. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the United States government.

This publication has been reviewed by security and policy review authorities and is cleared for public release.

To the Reader

As with any published work, the material immediately dates itself, thus at times becoming less relevant. These two volumes have been written with the expressed intent of remaining valid for as many years as possible--with the hope of imparting an educational framework to build upon rather than current and specific facts that often change quickly. We hope the reader will learn principles and be stimulated in thought, rather than struggle with errata induced by rapid change.

> Submit changes to:
> Maj Michael J. Muolo
> ACSC/DEAC 225
> Chennault Circle
> Maxwell AFB AL 36112-6426

"The space support for Desert Storm [and] Desert Shield will probably be the minimum support expected in any future crisis."

> Vice Adm W. A. Dougherty, USN
> Deputy Commander, US Space Command
> 15-21 April 1991
> Space News

"The Gulf War 'was the first space war . . . it was the first war of the space age.' "

> Gen Merrill A. McPeak
> Air Force Chief of Staff
> 8 April 1991
> Aviation Week & Space Technology

"Our technology superiority, particularly in space, was essential to our ability to prosecute the war quickly, safely and successfully."

> Donald Atwood
> Department of Defense Deputy Secretary
> 22 April 1991
> Military Space

"This was the first war in which space played a central part, and DSP was a very important part of it."

> Henry Cooper
> Director of US Strategic Defense Initiative Organization
> 1-7 April 1991
> Space News

"Space systems have become an integral part of all battle resources."

> Lt Gen James S. Cassity, Jr., USAF
> Director of Command, Control, and Communications for the Joint Chiefs of Staff
> 1-7 April 1991
> Space News

"Imaging and SIGINT satellites played a very major role in the success of the air war and as a result, the success of the ground war, just in terms of providing a comprehensive target list, target base, for planning the air war, [and] allowing the assessment of damage."

> Jeffrey T. Richelson
> National Security Archive
> Washington D.C.
> 4 March 1991
> Aerospace Daily

## Contents

Chapter

> DISCLAIMER

> FOREWORD

> PREFACE

> ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1 SPACE HISTORY: THE EVOLUTION OF SPACE POWER (137K)

> Truman Years: 1945-1952

> Eisenhower Years: 1953-1960

> > International Geophysical Year
> > National Aeronautics and Space Administration
> > Missile Gap
> > Military Space Systems

> > > Communication and Navigation
> > > Antiballistic Missiles
> > > Antisatellites
> > > X-20
> > > Missile Warning and Space Surveillance
> > > Program496L
> > > North American Aerospace Defense Command and the Missile Warning Network

> Kennedy and Johnson Years: 1961-1968

> > Military Space Systems

> > > Military Satellites
> > > Vela
> > > Antisatellites
> > > Antiballistic Missiles
> > > Fractional Orbit Bombardment System

> > Missile Warning and Space Surveillance Network
> > National Aeronautics and Space Administration

> Nixon and Ford Years: 1969-1976

> > Soviet Threat
> > Antiballistic Missiles
> > Military Space Systems

> > > Antisatellites
> > > Missile Warning and Space Surveillance Network

> > National Aeronautics and Space Administration

> > > Apollo X
> > > Apollo/Soyuz Test Program

> Carter Years: 1977-1980

> > Military Space Systems

> > > Antisatellite Weapons
> > > Satellite Survivability
> > > Directed Energy Weapons
> > > Missile Warning and the Space Surveillance Network

> > National Aeronautics and Space Administration

> Reagan Years: 1981-1988

> > Arms Negotiations

> > Strategic Defense Initiative and the Antiballistic Missile Treaty

> > Military Space Systems

> > > Antisatellites
> > > Missile Warning and Spacetrack Network

> > National Aeronautics and Space Administration Shuttle Program

> Bush Years: 1989-1992

> Notes

2 SPACE LAW, POLICY, AND DOCTRINE (61K)

> International Space Law

> Domestic Space Law

> National Space Policy

> > Early Policy
> > Intervening Years
> > Carter Administration Space Policy
> > Reagan Administration Space Policy
> > Bush Administration Space Policy
> > Department of Defense Space Policy
> > Air Force Space Policy

> Space Doctrine

> > Joint Space Doctrine
> > Air Force Space Doctrine

> Notes

3 SPACE SUPPORT TO THE WAR FIGHTERS: SPACE MISSIONS AND MILITARY SPACE SYSTEMS (105K)

> Force Support--Air Force Satellite Control Network

> > Dedicated and Common-User Elements
> > Types of Satellite Support
> > Satellite Operations Centers
> > Space Vehicle Support--Pass/Contact Description
> > Remote Tracking Stations

> > > Remote Tracking Station Communications
> > > Remote Tracking Station--Mission Unique Interfaces

> > Command Centers
> > Network Control System
> > Communications System--Major Components
> > Additional Systems

> Force Enhancement

> > Spacelift
> > Surveillance and Reconnaissance

> > > Defense Support Program
> > > Landsat

> > Navigation Systems
> > Communications Systems

> > > Defense Satellite Communications System
> > > NATO III
> > > Fleet Satellite Communications System

> > Meteorology

> Aerospace Control

> > Space Surveillance
> > Space Surveillance Network

> > > Dedicated Sensors
> > > Collateral Sensors
> > > Contributing Sensors

> > Protection
> > Negation

> Force Applications

> > Global Protection against Limited Strikes

> > > Accidental and Unauthorized Strikes
> > > Elements of Global Protection against Limited Strikes

> > Global Protection against Limited Strikes Architecture

> > > Brilliant Pebbles
> > > US Ground-Based Defense

> > Follow-on Systems

> Notes

4 SPACELIFT (47K)

> The Launch Centers

> > Vandenberg Air Force Base
> > Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

> Current Launch Vehicles

> > SCOUT
> > Pegasus
> > Delta
> > Atlas
> > Titan
> > Space Transportation System

> The Launch Process

> Notes

5 MILITARY SPACE STRATEGY AND EVOLVING SYSTEMS (47K)

> Space Force Support

> Space Force Enhancement

> Evolving Systems

> > Space-Based Wide Area Surveillance
> > Multispectral Imagery
> > Milstar
> > Ultra High Frequency Follow-On
> > Tactical Satellites
> > National Launch System
> > National Aerospace Plane
> > Single Stage to Orbit
> > Global Protection against Limited Strikes

> Notes

GLOSSARY (11K)

Classified Annexes (under separate cover)

[Not here]

Annex

> A Space Support to Desert Storm (U)

> B Passive Surveillance System (U)

> C Defense Support Program and Follow-on Early Warning System (U)

Illustrations

[Figures and tables are with text; photographs are separate hyperlinked files]

Figure

> 1 Satellite Support Functional Flow
> 2 Remote Tracking Station Locations
> 3 Current Third Country Ballistic Missile Capability
> 4 GPALS Integrated System and Key Elements
> 5 GPALS Architecture: Space-Based Protection against
> Ballistic Missiles with a Range Greater than 600 Kilometers
> 6 GPALS Architecture: Ground-Based Protection against Strategic Ballistic Missiles
> 7 GPALS Architecture: Protection against SLBMs
> 8 Complete GPALS Architecture
> 9 Launch Base Processing Flow
> 10 Typical Delta II Mission Profile
> 11 National Launch System Vehicle Specifications
> 12 Single Stage to Orbit

Table

> 1 International Agreements that Limit Military Activities in Space
> 2 Launch Capability in California
> 3 Launch Capability in Florida

Photograph

> Echo Balloon
> Mercury Capsule (Artist's Conception)
> Mercury Capsule Dimensions
> MR-3 Lift-off
> Mercury-Atlas 9
> Gemini IX Lift-off
> GT-3 Lift-off
> Saturn S-IVB Engine
> Apollo 15 Rollout
> Skylab
> Apollo/Soyuz Test Project Spacecraft
> Voyager Spacecraft
> Landsat C
> Landsat D
> Global Positioning System Satellite
> Defense Satellite Communications System III Satellite
> Fleet Satellite Communications System Satellite
> Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Satellite
> PAVE PAWS
> Pegasus
> Delta II
> Atlas
> Atlas-Centaur
> Titan II
> Titan IV
> Space Transportation System
> Space-Based Wide Area Surveillance Satellite
> National Aerospace Plane

##

Foreword

For over 30 years, space has been integral to the security of the United States and its allies. Secretary of the Air Force Donald B. Rice said, "Space forces are a central element of our global reach, the principal attribute of the Air Force' s aerospace operations of the future."

Recent conflicts have underscored the role space now plays in our combat capability. Our navigation satellites provide instant pinpoint positioning and targeting information to aircraft, ground forces, ships, and command centers. Communications satellites provide global connectivity between all levels of our national security infrastructure. Weather satellites report meteorological data in near real time directly to forces in the theater. Early warning satellites, which detect and report ballistic missile launches, serve strategic objectives as well as tactical purposes. These and other space systems will continue to be essential to the success of future military operations. Whenever and wherever American men and women fight, space will forevermore be critical to their success.

Air Force policy states, "Spacepower will assume as decisive a role in future combat operations as airpower has today." As we move toward this goal, educating our future leadership becomes even more critical. Air Force Space Command has collaborated with Air University to produce this new edition of the Space Handbook. It is an excellent two volume instructional and reference manual. Volume 1 discusses space system organizations, roles and missions, policy, and space applications. Volume 2 provides an introduction to the physical laws and principles of space.

This handbook will provide new students of space a sound basis from which to grow and will stimulate experienced professionals. It is your guide to space and your invitation to all the excitement and opportunity therein.

> [Signature]

> JAY W. KELLEY
> Lieutenant General, USAF
> Commander, Air University

## Preface

One of the primary efforts of all space advocates is to integrate, fully and effectively, the tremendous force enhancement capabilities of space-related assets into our national war-fighting capabilities. Lt Gen Thomas S. Moorman, Jr., states that Air Force Space Command's focus should relate to learning what the war-fighting commands need in the way of space systems. Part and parcel of this job is to demystify space and develop new applications for our space products.

Recent military operations have shown that the immense tactical application possibilities of current space systems are underused. The reason is that the war fighters are not familiar with space assets or capabilities and therefore do not have the tools or training to use them. The primary focus of this volume is to educate and begin to convince war fighters that space systems can do so much more for them than simply let them watch the fight. If the vast potential of space systems is fully understood and effectively applied, space can have a tremendous impact on mission planning and execution, saving friendly lives and increasing weapon effectiveness.

### Need

Support from space assets has been successful in several recent operations. For example: Desert One (Iran), Urgent Fury (Grenada), El Dorado Canyon (Libya), and Just Cause (Panama). Prior to the massive effort to integrate space into the Desert Storm theater, most efforts using space had limited success and focused mostly on communications and intelligence. Primarily, this focus was due to a lack of knowledge and understanding of space systems capabilities within the war-fighting community. Most requests were ad hoc reactions and piecemeal efforts, not fully coordinated between users and providers of space systems.

Classified Annex A to this handbook covers in-depth space support to Operation Desert Storm. Even though Desert Storm was tremendously successful, it showed the need for better space understanding and applications. Gen Norman Schwarzkopf echoed this idea when he briefed Congress on problems with battle damage assessment and intelligence dissemination. Better space applications can greatly improve these areas as well as other missions.

### Potential

We have not fully exploited the expansive potential of space systems. We have extremely sophisticated and capable space systems that have the advantages of high volume collection and relay of global data in real time or near real time. These advantages allow our forces to see, measure, and proactively respond to a threat. However, among other problems, the users have prototype equipment operated by untrained personnel which results in a trickle of noncurrent information to the unit and aircrew level. Also, there is the continuing problem of overclassifying the output and products of some space systems. Space asset owners and operators must capitalize on the enormous amount of money already spent on space systems and maximize their capabilities in supporting combat execution.

Desert Storm featured a great improvement in space system utility, giving us a new baseline from which to grow. According to Lt Gen Thomas S. Moorman, Jr., "We proved our worth in the Persian Gulf, and in the future we will prove our worth as we continue to enhance combat effectiveness with space systems." Space provided critical support to all the services in navigation, communications, weather, and intelligence. In an encouraging article from Air Force Magazine, James Canan writes, "In military circles, space is losing its high-flown, R&D aura and is taking on a down-to-earth, operational look. Warfighting commanders are fast becoming sold on space systems." The information that space systems provide to tactical forces is extremely well received and changes the way we plan a lot of missions. We are making a difference! This difference is an example of what needs to happen, but we must also improve our education process.

### Increasing the War Fighter's Comfort
Index for Space Systems

According to Lt Gen Thomas S. Moorman, "Our goal [as space advocates] is to create a climate where the flying commands are comfortable with space, and think of space solutions to their operational problems." The space community needs to sell the utility and value of space to the war fighters and thereby increase their comfort index on space. Lt Col Randy Peixotto, Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) states, "AFSOC forces use space capabilities on a daily basis and on every operational mission, but like most organizations, we do not normally recognize the extent to which we are dependent on satellites." War-fighting commands have to become familiar with what is available and practice using it. We need to ensure they have continuous hands-on access to hardware even during peacetime. The phrase "train as we fight" applies here and lies at the heart of the Space Handbook. This text is a training tool or a stepping stone for the uninitiated and is for use by neophytes who need to be aware of the capabilities and potential of space. We must educate our leaders and war fighters on space, and the Handbook is a means to help.

The bottom line is that Air Force Space Command and the Space Handbook focus on space as a force enhancer to war-fighting operations. The objective is to provide better understanding which will capitalize on the billions of dollars invested in space systems to allow us to execute combat operations more effectively.

### Acknowledgments

As with most work, many people are responsible for this project's success. There are many to thank--some for considerable help and a few for their superlative efforts--without whom I could not have completed this project! There are so many to acknowledge that I can list only their names. I hope they will forgive this brevity. They know what they have accomplished, how helpful they have been, and that I am truly grateful !

The following individuals made most meaningful contributions in many areas, including helping to: organize, provide information, consult, support, coordinate, edit, advise, approve, assist, empathize, suggest, and more.

       Col Jack Harris        Col Sandy Mangold       Col Rod Payne
       Dr "Buck" Grinter      Ms Emily Adams          Capt Robert Freeman
       Maj Ted Burgner        Capt Jim Wolf           Mr John Jordan
       Maj Joe Squatrito      Maj Dale Madison        Maj Ron Del Gizzi
       TSgt Dennis Sanchez    Maj Jerry Rand          Maj Dwight Rauhala
       Lt Col Ken Henry       Maj Laurie Reh          Maj Jeff Walters
       Maj Robin Squatrito    Maj Daryl Tomczyk

There were three standouts in terms of support on this effort. These three individuals kept pushing me onward and upward towards what I hope and believe is a useful document. These individuals helped in such areas as typing, coordinating, editing, correcting, cheerleading, admonishing, encouraging, consulting, listening, and advocating. My deepest and sincerest thanks go to my wife Shirley Hand and to my friends and coworkers Andrea Pollitt and Bonnie Houchen! I am forever indebted to you.

To any whom I may have omitted, my apologies, but thank you nonetheless.

To Chapter 1

Thanks to the author and AU Press.

Transcription and hypertext by JYA/Urban Deadline.