| Cryptome DVDs are offered by Cryptome. Donate $25 for two DVDs of the Cryptome 12-years collection of 46,000 files from June 1996 to June 2008 (~6.7 GB). Click Paypal or mail check/MO made out to John Young, 251 West 89th Street, New York, NY 10024. The collection includes all files of cryptome.org, jya.com, cartome.org, eyeball-series.org and iraq-kill-maim.org, and 23,000 (updated) pages of counter-intelligence dossiers declassified by the US Army Information and Security Command, dating from 1945 to 1985.The DVDs will be sent anywhere worldwide without extra cost.

Web | cryptome.org | cryptome.info | jya.com | eyeball-series.org | cryptome.cn

8 May 1998

High-performance Computing, National Security Applications, and
Export Control Policy at the Close of the 20th Century

Table of Contents

191

## APPENDIX A. Applications of National Security Importance

The following table provides a summary of national security applications reviewed in this study. It indicates the kind of problem solved, the HPC configuration on which it was solved, and the time required for the solution.

This selection, compiled through a combination of direct communications with practitioners and a review of published literature, is not an exhaustive listing. However, it does include many of the more important national security applications, and gives policy makers a rough idea of the kinds of applications being solved at various performance levels.

Two points in particular should be kept in mind when reading the table. First, the applications shown here constitute data points that often, in practice, lie along a continuum. The specific size of the application is often a function of the computational resources available in a given configuration and the "threshold of patience" of the practitioner. If the configuration available were slightly larger, or smaller, the practitioners in most cases would solve the same kinds of problem, but perhaps with a different grid size, or time-step, etc. In short, the absence of a particular type of application at some performance level should not be interpreted as a statement that no version of that application can be solved at that performance level.

Second, the CTP value shown is the composite theoretical performance of the configuration used to solve the problem. It is well known that any metric, including the CTP, does not perfectly predict the performance of all systems on all applications. Consequently, the CTP measures given here should be used only as rough indicators of the performance level required for a particular kind of application. The fact that a given problem was run on a machine with a CTP of n Mtops does not mean that all systems with CTP > n Mtops can solve the problem, or that all systems with CTP < n Mtops can not. The CTP simply does not have this kind of precision.

The following acronyms are used for applications categories:

CCM | Computational Chemistry and Materials Science | CWO | Climate/Weather/Ocean Modeling and Simulation
CEA | Computational Electromagnetics and Acoustics | FMS | Forces Modeling and Simulation/ C4I
CFD | Computational Fluid Dynamics | Nuclear | Nuclear weapons development and stockpile maintenance
CSM | Computational Structural Mechanics | SIP | Signal/Image Processing

192

| Machine | Year | CTP | Category | Time | Problem | Problem size
1 | VAX 6210 |  | 1 | SIP | 35 min | Focus an image [1] | 5040 x 1260 samples (18km x 8 km)
2 | Cray-1 | 1984 | 195 | CFD | 1.4 CPU hours | SCRAMJET wing-fuselage aerodynamic interaction simulation [2] | 56,730 grid points, Mach 6
3 | Cray-1S | early 1980s | 195 | CFD | 20 CPU hr | Simulation of after-body drag for a fuselage with propulsive jet. Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes [3] |
4 | Cray-1S | early 1980s | 195 | nuclear | 1127.5 CPU sec | LANL Hydrodynamics code 3 [4] |
5 | Cray-1S | early 1980s | 195 | nuclear | 117.2 CPU sec | LANL Hydrodynamics code 1 [4] |
6 | Cray-1S | early 1980s | 195 | nuclear | 4547.1 CPU sec | LANL Hydrodynamics code 2 [4] |
7 | Cray-1 |  | 195 |  | 24 hours | Crash simulation [5] | 5,500 elements
8 | Cray-1S |  | 195 | CFD |  | Nonlinear inviscid (STAGE II): Above , plus Transonic pressure loads; wave drag [3,6] | 10,000 grid points
9 | Cosmic Cube (6) | 1991 | 293 | SIP | 1.81 millisec | Discrete Fourier transform algorithm [7] | 5040 complex data sample
10 | Cray X-MP/1 | mid 1980s | 316 | nuclear |  | two-dimensional, reduced physics simulation |
11 | Cray XMP/48 (1 Proc) | 1988 | 353 | CFD | 20-50 hr | Flow simulation around complete F-16A aircraft (wings, fuselage, inlet, vertical and horizontal tails, nozzle) at 6 deg angle of attack, Mach 0.9. Reynolds Average Navier Stokes. Reynolds number = 4.5 million.
[8]
1 million grid points, 8
Mwords (one 2 Mword
zone in memory at a time),
2000-5000 iterations
12 | Cray XMP/l | 1990 | 353 | CCM | 1000 hours | Molecular dynamics of bead-spring model of a polymer chain [9] | Chainlength = 400
13 | Cray J916/1 | 1996 | 450 | CFD | 300 CPU hr | Modeling of transonic flow around AS28G wing/body/pylon/nacelle configuration. 3D Reynolds Averaged full Navier-Stokes solution. [10] | 3.5 million nodes, 195 Mwords memory
14 | Origin2000/1 | 1997 | 459 | SIP | 5.650 s | RT_STAP benchmark (hard) [11] | 2.7 million samples per .161 sec
15 | Cray YMP/1 | 1987 | 500 | CSM | 200 hours | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 200,000 cells
16 | Cray YMP/1 | 1990 | 500 | CSM | 39 CPU sec | Static analysis of aerodynamic loading on solid rocket booster [13] | 10,453 elements, 9206 nodes, 54,870 DOF19 256 Mword memory
17 | Cray YMP | 1991 | 500 | CCM | 1000 hours | Molecular dynamics modeling of hydrodynamic interactions in "semi- dilute" and concentrated polymer solutions [9] | single chain 60 monomers
18 | Cray YMP | 1991 | 500 | CCM | 1000 hours | Modeling of thermodynamics of polymer mixtures [9] | lattice size - 1123 chain size = 256
19 | Cray YMP/1 | 1991 | 500 | CFD | 40 CPU h | Simulation of viscous flow about the Harrier Jet (operating in-ground effect modeled) [14] | 2.8 million points, 20 Mwords memory.
20 | Cray YMP/1 | 1993 | 500 | CCM | 1.47 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 100,000 atoms

193

| Machine | Year | CTP |  | Time | Problem | Problem size
21 | Cray YMP/1 | 1996 | 500 | CFD | 170 CPU hr (est) | Modeling of transonic flow around AS28G wing/body/pylon/nacelle configuration. 3D Reynolds Averaged full Navier-Stokes solution. [10] | 3.5 million nodes, 195 Mwords memory
22 | Cray YMP/1 | 1996 | 500 | CFD | 6 CPU hr | Modeling of transonic flow around F5 wing (Aerospatiale). 3D Reynolds Averaged full Navier-Stokes solution. [10] | 442368 cells (192x48x48).
23 | Cray YMP | 1996 | 500 | CFD | 8 CPU hr, 3000 timesteps | Large-Eddy simulation at high Reynolds 3000 number [16] | 2.1 million grid points, 44 Mwords
24 | workstation | 1997 | 500 | CSM |  | 2D modeling of simple projectile striking simple target[17] | 510,000s of grid points
25 | Cray Y-MP/1 | late 1980s | 500 | nuclear | 1000's of hours | two-dimensional, almost full physics (e.g. Monte Carlo neutron transport |
26 | Cray Y-MP/1 | late 1980s | 500 | nuclear | 1000's of hours | 1D, full physics simulation |
27 | Cray YMP/1 |  | 500 | CEA | 5 CPU hr per timestep | Signature of modern fighter at per fixed incident angle at 1GHz [18] | 50 million grid points @ 18 words/grid point
28 | Cray Y-MP/1 |  | 500 | nuclear |  | two-dimensional, reduced physics simulations | 100-500 MBytes
29 | Mercury Race (5 x 4 i860 processors, Ruggedized | 1997 | 866 | SIP |  | SAR system aboard P3-C Orion maritime patrol aircraft [19] |
30 | Cray YMP/2 256 MW | 1990 | 958 | CSM | 19.79 CPUs | Static analysis of aerodynamic loading on solid rocket booster [13] | 10,453 elements, 9206 nodes, 54,870 DOF
31 | Cray Y-MP/2 | late 1980s | 958 | CFD |  | Design of F-22 fighter [20] |
32 | CM-5/32 | 1993 | 970 | CCM | 449 CPU sec | Determination of structure of Eglin-C molecular system [21] | 530 atoms, with 1689 distance and 87 dihedral constraints
33 | Cray-2/l | 1987 | 1300 | CSM | 400 hours | 3D modeling of projectile striking target. Hundreds of microsecond timescales. [17] | .5-1.5 million grid points 256 Mword memory
34 | Cray-2 | 1992 | 1098 | CSM | 5 CPU hours | Modeling aeroelastic response of a detailed wing-body configuration using a potential flow theory [13] |
35 | Cray-2 | 1992 | 1098 | CSM | 6 CPU days | Establish transonic flutter boundary for a given set of aeroelastic parameters [13] |
36 | Cray-2 | 1992 | 1098 | CSM | 600 CPU days | Full Navier-Stokes equations [13] |
37 | Cray-2 |  | 1098 | CSM | 2 hours | 3D modeling of symmetric, transonic, low angel of attack impact of warhead and defensive structure [20] |
38 | Cray-2 |  | 1098 | CSM | 200 hours | Penetration model against advanced armor [20] |
39 | Cray-2 |  | 1098 | CSM | 200 hours | Modeling full kinetic ill effects against hybrid armors [20] |
40 | Cray-2 |  | 1098 | CSM | 40 hours | 3D modeling of symmetric, transonic, low angel of attack impact of warhead and defensive structure [20] |

194

| Machine | Year | CTP |  | Time | Problem | Problem size
41 | Cray-2 | 1984 | 1300 | CFD | 15 CPU m | Simulation of 2D viscous flow field about an airfoil [3] |
42 | Cray-2 | 1988 | 1300 | CFD | 20 hr | Simulation of flow about the space shuttle (Orbiter, External Tank, Solid Rocket Boosters), Mach 1.05, Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes, Reynolds number = 4 million (3% model) [8] | 750,000 grid points, 6 Mwords.
43 | Cray-2 | 1980s | 1300 | CFD | 100 CPU h | Simulation of external flow about an aircraft at cruise. Steady flow. Steady Navier- Stokes simulation. [14] | 1.0 million grid points.
44 |  | 1995 | 1400 | nuclear |  | Credible one- and two-dimensional simulations [22]
45 | Cray C90/1 | 1993 | 1437 | CCM | .592 sec/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 100,000 atoms
46 | Cray C90/1 | 1994 | 1437 | CEA | 161 CPU hour | Compute magnitude of scattered hour wave-pattern on X24C re-entry aerospace vehicle [23] | 181 x 59 x 162 grid ( 1.7 million)
47 | Cray C90/1 | 1994 | 1437 | CFD | overnight | Modeling of flow over a submarine hull with no propulsion unit included [24] | 1-2 million grid points
48 | Cray C916 | 1994 | 1437 | CEA |  | Radar cross section on perfectly conducting sphere [25] | 48 x 48 x 96 (221 thousand)
49 50 | Cray C90/1 | 1995 | 1437 | CEA | 1 hour | Submarine acoustic signature for single frequency |
50 | Cray C90/1 | 1995 | 1437 | CEA | 1 hour | Submarine acoustic signature for single frequency [26] |
51 | Cray C90/1 | 1994 | 1437 | CEA | 12,745 sec | Radar cross section of perfectly conducting sphere, wave number 20 [27] | 97 x 96 x 192 (1.7million grid points), 16.1 points per wavelength
52 | Cray C90/1 | 1995 | 1437 | CEA | 200 hour | Submarine acoustic signature for full spectrum of frequencies [26] |
53 | Cray C90/1 | 1995 | 1437 | CWO |  | CCM2, Community Climate Model, T42 [28] | 128 x 64 transform grid, 4.2 Gflops
54 | Cray C90/1 | 1996 | 1437 | CFD | 19 CPU hr | Simulation of turbulent flow around the F/A-18 aircraft at 60 degree angle of attack. Mach 0.3. Reynolds number = 8.88 million [29] | 1.25 million grid points. 100 Mwords of memory.
55 | Cray C90/1 | 1996 | 1437 | CFD | 200 CPU hr | Simulation of unsteady flow about an F-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle at 30, 45, 60 deg angle of attack [30] | 2.5 million grid points for half-body modeling. 40 MWords memory
56 | Cray C90/1 | 1996 | 1437 | CFD | 3 CPU hr | Modeling of flow over a blended wing/body aircraft at cruise. [31] | 45 Mwords of memory
58 | SGI PowerChallenge 4 nodes | 1997 | 1686 | CCM | overnight | Explosion simulation [32] | 30 thousand diatomic molecules
59 | SGI Onyx | 1990 | 1700 | SIP |  | Attack and Launch Early Reporting to Theater (LERT) [20] |
60 | Mercury Race (52 processor, i860) | 1996 | 1773 | SIP |  | Sonar system for Los Angeles Class submarines [33] |

195-196

| Machine | Year | CTP |  | Time | Problem | Problem size
61 | Cray YMP/4 256 MW | 1990 | 1875 | CSM | 10 CPU s | Static analysis of aerodynamic loading on solid rocket booster [13] | 10,453 elements, 9206 nodes, 54,870 DOF
62 | Intel iPSC860/64 | 1993 | 2097 | CCM | .418 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 100,000 atoms
63 | Intel iPSC860/64 | 1993 | 2097 | CCM | 3.68 sec/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 1 million atoms
64 | Cray 2, 4 proc | 1990 | 2100 | CSM | 400 hours | armor/anti-armor, 3-D |
65 | Cray T3D/16 | 1996 | 2142 | CFD | 20,000 CPU sec. 50 CPU sec x 400 steps | Aerodynamics of missile at Mach 3.5. Reynolds number = 6.4 million [34] | 500x150 (75,000) elements in mesh. 381,600 equations solved every timestep.
66 | CM-2 |  | 2471 | SIP | 10 minutes | Creation of synthetic aperture radar image [20] |
67 | Cray C90/2 | 1993 | 2750 |  | 117 sec | Determination of structure of Eglin-C molecular system [21] | 530 atoms, with 1689 distance and 87 dihedral constraints
68 | Cray C90/2 | 1993 | 2750 | CCM | 12269 sec | Determination of structure of E. coli trp repressor molecular system [21] | 1504 atoms 6014 constraints
69 | iPSC860/ 128 | 1997 | 3485 | CFD | 120 hr | Small unmanned vehicle, fully turbulent |
70 | iPSC860/ 128 | 1997 | 3485 | CFD | 5 days | Full ship flow model [35] |
71 | iPSC860/ 128 | 1997 | 3485 | CFD | 5 days | Small unmanned undersea vehicle. Fully turbulent model with Reynolds numbers. [39] | 2.5 million grid points
72 | Cray YMP/8 | 1989 | 3708 | CFD |  | Model of flow around a fully appended submarine. Steady state, non-viscous flow model. [35] | 250,000 grid points
73 | Cray Y-MP/8 | early 1990s | 3708 | CSM | 200 hours | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 6 million cells
74 | Cray Y-MP/8 | mid 1990s | 3708 | CSM | 10-40 hours | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 100K- 1 million cells
75 | IBM SP1/64 | 1993 | 4074 | CCM | 1.11 sec/ timestep | Molecular dynamics of SiO2 system [36] | 0.53 million atoms
76 | Intel Paragon |  | 4600 | CEA |  | Non-acoustic anti-submarine warfare sensor development [20] |
77 | IBM SP-2/ 32 | 1996 | 4745 | CFD | 80 minutes | 3D unsteady incompressible time-averaged Navier-Stokes. Multiblock transformed coordinates. [37] | 3.3 million points
78 | IBM SP-2/32 | 1997 | 4745 | CFD |  | Helicopter rotor motion coupled with rotor CFD, predict 3D tip-relief flow effect, parallel approximate factorization method. [38] |
79 | Origin2000/ 12 | 1997 | 4835 | CFD | 4329 sec | CFL3D applied to a wing-body configuration: time-dependent thin-layer Navier-Stokes equation in 3D, finite- volume, 3 multigrid levels. [39] | 3.5 million points
80 | Intel Paragon/150 | early 1990s | 4864 | CFD |  | JAST aircraft design [20] |
81 | Cray C90/4 | 1993 | 5375 | CFD | 1 week | Modeling of flow around a smooth ellipsoid submarine. Turbulent flow, fixed angle of attack, [35] | 2.5 million grid points
82 | CM-5/128 | 1993 | 5657 | CCM | 436 CPU sec | Determination of structure of Eglin-C molecular system [21] | 530 atoms, with 1689 distance and 87 dihedral constraints
83 | CM-5/128 | 1993 | 5657 | CCM | 6799 CPU sec | Determination of structure of E. coli trp repressor molecular system [21] | 1504 atoms, with 6014 constraints
84 | Origin2000/16 | 1997 | 5908 | SIP | .39 s | RT_STAP benchmark (hard) [11] | 2.7 million samples per .161 sec
85 | IBM SP-2/45 | 1997 | 6300 | CFD | 2 to 4 hours | Helicopter blade structural optimization code, gradient-based optimization technique to measure performance changes as each design variable is varied. [38] | up to 90 design variables, one run per variable

197-198

| Machine | Year | CTP | Category | Time | Problem | Problem size
86 | Cray T3D/64 | 1995 | 6332 | CWO |  | CCM2, Community Climate Model, T42 [28] | 128 x 64 transform grid, 608 Mflops
87 | IBM SP-2/64 | 1997 | 7100 | CFD | 2 to 4 hours | Helicopter rotor free-wake model, high- order vortex element and wake relaxation. [38] |
88 | Paragon 256 | 1995 | 7315 | CCM | 82 sec/ timestep | Particle simulation interacting through the standard pair-wise 6-12 Lennard- Jones potential [40] | 50 million particles
89 |  |  | CEA |  |  | Bottom contour modeling of shallow water in submarine design [20] |
90 |  |  | SIP |  |  | Topographical Synthetic Aperture Radar data processing [20] |
91 | Paragon /321 | 1995 | 8263 | SIP |  | 2D FFT [41] | 200 x 1024 x 1024 (200 Mpixels) images/sec
92 | Intel Paragon/321 |  | 8980 | SIP |  | Development of algorithms for Shipboard infrared search & tracking (SIRST) [20] |
93 | SGI PowerChallenge (R8000/150) /16 | 1996 | 9510 | CFD | 3.6 hr, 3000 timesteps | Large-Eddy simulation at high Reynolds number [16] | 2.1 million grid points, 44 Mwords
94 | ORNL Paragon/360 |  | 9626 | FMS |  | Synthetic forces experiments [42] | 5713 vehicles, 6,697 entities
95 |  |  | 10000 | SIP |  | Long-range unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) on-board data processing [20] |
96 | Cray T3D/128 | 1995 | 10056 | CEA | 12,745 sec | Radar cross section of perfectly conducting sphere, wave number 20 [27] | 97 x 96 x 192 (1.7 million grid points), 16.1 points per wavelength
97 | Cray T3D/128 | 1995 | 10056 | CEA | 2,874 s | Radar cross section of perfectly conducting sphere [27] | 128 x 96 x 92 (2.4 million cells) 600 timesteps
98 | CM-5/256 | 1993 | 10457 | CCM | 492 CPU sec | Determination of structure of Eglin-C molecular system [21] | 530 atoms, with 1689 distance and 87 dihedral constraints
99 | CM-5/256 | 1993 | 10457 | CCM | 7098 CPU sec | Determination of structure of E. coli trp repressor molecular system [21] | 1504 atoms, with 6014 constraints
100 | Cray C98 | 1994 | 10625 | CWO | -5 hrs | Global atmospheric forecast, Fleet Numerical operational run [43] | 480 x 240 grid; 18 vertical layers
101 | Origin2000/32 | 1997 | 11768 | SIP | .205 s | RT_STAP benchmark (hard) [11] | 2.7 million samples per .161 sec
102 | Origin2000/32 | 1997 | 11768 | CWO |  | SC-MICOM, global ocean forecast, two-tier communication pattern [17] |
103 | Intel Paragon/512 | 1995 | 12680 | CCM | 84 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation of 102.4 million particles using pair-wise 6-12 Lennard Jones potential [40] | 102.4 million atoms
104 | IBM SP2/128 | 1995 | 13147 | CEA | 3,304.2 s | Radar cross section of perfectly conducting sphere [27] | 128 x 96 x 92 (2.4 million cells) 600 timesteps
105 | Maui SP2/128 |  | 13147 | FMS | 2 hours | Synthetic forces experiments [42] | 5086 vehicles
106 | Intel Touchstone Delta/512 | 1993 | 13236 | CCM | 4.84 sec/ timestep | Molecular dynamics of SiO2 system [36] | 4.2 million atoms
107 | Intel Paragon | 1995 | 13236 | SIP | 55 sec | Correlation processing of 20 seconds worth of SIR-C/S-SAR data from Space Shuttle [45] |
108 | NASA Ames SP2/ 139 |  | 14057 | FMS | 2 hours | Synthetic forces experiments [42] | 5464 vehicles
109 | IBM SP-2/128 | 1995 | 14200 | CWO |  | PCCM2, Parallel CCM2, T42 [46] | 128 x 64 transform grid, 2.2 Gflops
110 | Origin2000/40 | 1997 | 14698 | CSM |  | Crash code, PAM |
111 | IBM SP-2/160 | 1995 | 15796 | CWO |  | AGCM, Atmospheric General Circulation Model [47] | 144 x 88 grid points, 9 vertical levels, 2.2 Gflops
112 | Cray C912 | 1996 | 15875 | CSM | 23 CPU hours | Water over C4 explosive in container above wet sand, alternate scenario: container next to building, finite element [48] | 38,000 elements, 230 msec simulated time, 16 Mwords memory

199-200

| Machine | Year | CTP |  | Time | Problem | Problem size
113 | Cray C912 | 1996 | 15875 | CSM | 36 hours | Water over C4 over sand |
114 | Cray C912 | 1996 | 15875 | CSM | 435 CPU hours | Water over C4 explosive in container above wet sand, building at a distance[48] | 13 million cells, 12.5 simulated time
115 | Cray C912 | 1997 | 15875 | CWO | ~5 hrs | Global atmospheric forecast, Fleet Numerical operational run [43] | 480 x 240 grid; 24 vertical layers
116 | Cray C912 | 1997 | 15875 | CWO | 1 hr | Global ocean forecast, Fleet Numerical operational run [49] | 1/4 degree, 25 km resolution
117 | ORNL Paragon/680 |  | 16737 | FMS |  | Synthetic forces experiments [42] | 10913 vehicles, 13,222 entities
118 | Cray T3D/256 | 1993 | 17503 | CCM | .0509 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 100,000 atoms
119 | Cray T3D/256 | 1993 | 17503 | CCM | .405 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 1 million atoms
120 | Cray T3D/256 | 1993 | 17503 | CCM | 1.86 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 5 million atoms
121 | Cray T3D/256 | 1995 | 17503 | CWO |  | Global weather forecasting model, National Meteorological Center, T170 [50] | 32 vertical levels, 190 x 380 grid points, 6.1 Gflops
122 | Cray T3D/256 | 1995 | 17503 | CWO |  | AGCM, Atmospheric General Circulation Model [47] | 144 x 88 grid points, 9 vertical levels, 2.5 Gflops
123 | Cray T3D/256 | 1996 | 17503 | CWO | 105 min | ARPS, Advanced Regional Prediction System, v 4.0, fine scale forecast [51] | 96 x 96 cells, 288 x 288 km, 7 hr forecast
124 | Cray T3D/256 | 1996 | 17503 | CFD | 2 hr, 3000 timesteps | Large-Eddy simulation at high Reynolds number [16] | 2.1 million grid points, 44 Mwords
125 | Cray T3D/256 | 1996 | 17503 | CFD | 52,000 CPU sec. 130 CPU sec x 400 timesteps | Aerodynamics of missile at Mach 2.5, 14- degrees angle of attack for laminar and turbulent viscous effects. [34] | 944,366 nodes and 918,000 elements. 4,610,378 coupled nonlinear equations solved every timestep.
126 | CM-5/512 | 1993 | 20057 | CCM | 8106 sec | Determination of structure of E. coli trp repressor molecular system [21] | 1504 atoms, with 6014 constraints
127 | CM-5/512 | 1995 | 20057 | CFD | 15,000 CPU sec, 30 CPU sec per each of 500 timesteps | Flare maneuver of a large ram-air parachute. Reynolds number = 10 million. Algebraic turbulence model [52,53] | 469,493 nodes. 455,520 hexahedral elements. 3,666,432 equations solved per timestep.
128 | CM-5/512 | 1995 | 20057 | CFD | 500 Timesteps | Parafoil with flaps flow simulation. [52] | 2,363,887 equations solved at each timestep
129 | CM-5/512 | 1995 | 20057 | CFD |  | Parafoil with flaps flow simulation. [52] | 2,363,887 equations solved at each of 500 timesteps
130 | CM-5/512 | 1995 | 20057 | CFD |  | Fighter aircraft at Mach 2.0. [52] | 3D mesh of 367,867 nodes, 2, 143,160 tetrahedral elements, and 1.7 million coupled nonlinear equations solved
per timestep.
131 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD | 500 timesteps | Steady-state parafoil simulation, 10 deg angle of attack, Reynolds number = 10 million [54] | 2.3 million equations every timestep
132 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD | 500 timesteps | Inflation simulation of large ram-air parachute, Box initially at 10 deg angle of attack and velocity at 112 ft/sec, 2 simulated seconds. [55] | 1,304,606 coupled nonlinear equations solved every timestep.
133 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD | 7500 CPU sec = 50 CPU sec x 150 timesteps | Aerodynamics of missile at Mach 2.5, 14 deg angle of attack for laminar and turbulent viscous effects. [34] | 763,323 nodes and 729,600 elements. 3,610,964 coupled nonlinear equations solved in each of 150 pseudo-time
steps.

201-202

| Machine | Year | CTP |  | Time | Problem | Problem size
134 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD |  | Steady-state parafoil simulation, 10 deg angle of attack [54] | 2.3 million equations x 500 timesteps; Reynolds number10 million
135 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD |  | Inflation simulation of large ram-air parachute, Box initially at 10 deg angle of attack and velocity at 112 ft/sec, 2 simulated seconds. [55] | 1,304,606 coupled nonlinear equations solved each of 500 timesteps.
136 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD |  | Flare simulation of large ram-air parachute. [55] | 3,666,432 coupled nonlinear equations solved every timestep.
137 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD |  | 3D simulation of round parachute, Reynolds number = 1 million [56] |
138 | CM-5/512 | 1996 | 20057 | CFD |  | 3D study of missile aerodynamics, Mach 3.5, 14 deg angle of attack, Reynolds number = 14.8 million [57] | 340,000 element mesh, nonlinear system of 1,750,000+ equations solved every timestep.
139 | CM-5/512 | 1997 | 20057 | CFD | 30 hours | Parafoil simulation. [54] | 1 million equations solved 500 times per run
140 | CM-5/512 |  | 20057 | CCM | 8106 sec |  |
141 | C916 | 1995 | 21125 | CSM | 900 CPU hours | Hardened structure with internal explosion, portion of the overall structure and surrounding soil. DYNA3D, nonlinear, explicitly, FE code. Nonlinear constituative models to
simulate concrete & steel. [58]
144,257 solid & 168,438
trust elements for
concrete & steel bars,
17,858 loaded surfaces,
500,000 DOF,
60 msec simulated time
142 | Cray C916 | 1995 | 21125 | CWO |  | CCM2, Community Climate Model, T170 [28] | 512 x 256 transform grid, 2.4 Gbytes memory, 53. Gflops
143 | Cray C916 | 1995 | 21125 | CWO |  | IFS, Integrated Forecasting System, T213 [59] | 640 grid points/latitude, 134,028 points/horizontal layer, 31 vertical layers
144 | Cray C916 | 1995 | 21125 | CWO |  | ARPS, Advanced Regional Prediction System, v 3.1 [60] | 64 x 64 x 32, 6 Gflops
145 | Cray C916 | 1996 | 21125 | CSM | 325 CPU hours 3 day continuous run | Explosion engulfing a set of buildings, DYNA3D analysis to study effects on window glass & doors done off-line after the blast simulation completed [61] | 825 Mwords memory
146 | Cray C916 | 1996 | 21125 | CWO | 45 min | ARPS, Advanced Regional Prediction System, v 4.0, coarse scale forecast [51] | 96 x 96 cells, 864 x 864 km, 7 hr forecast
147 | Cray C916 | 1996 | 21125 | CSM | 72 hours | Explosion engulfing bldgs |
148 | Cray C916 | 1996 | 21125 | CFD |  | 3D simulation of flow past a tuna w/ oscillating caudal fin. Adaptive remeshing. Integrated with rigid body motion [62] |
149 | Cray C90/16 | 1997 | 21125 | CFD | 9 months | 3D simulation of submarine with unsteady separating flow, fixed angle of attack, fixed geometry [35] |
150 | Cray C916 | 1998 | 21125 | CWO | ~5hrs | Global atmospheric forecast, Fleet Numerical operational run [43] | 480 x 240 grid; 30 vertical layers
151 | Cray C916 |  | 21125 | CSM | 200 hours | 2D model of effects of nuclear blast on structure [20] |
152 | Cray C916 |  | 21125 | CSM | 600 hours | 3D model of effects of nuclear blast on structure [20] |
153 | Cray C916 |  | 21125 | CSM | several hundred hrs | Modeling effects of complex defensive structure [20] |
154 | Cray C916 |  | 21125 | CFD |  | Modeling of turbulent flow about a submarine [20] |
155 | CEWES SP- 2/229 |  | 21506 | FMS | 2 hours | Synthetic forces experiments [42] | 9739 vehicles
156 | Origin2000/ 64 | 1997 | 23488 | CFD |  | ARC3D: simple 3D transient Euler variant on a rectilinear grid. [63] |
157 | Paragon 1024 | 1995 | 24520 | CWO |  | PCCM2, Parallel CCM2, T42 [46] | 128 x 64 transform grid, 2.2 Gflops

203-204

| Machine | Year | CTP | Category | Time | Problem | Problem size
158 | Intel Paragon/1024 |  | 24520 | CCM | .914 sec/ timestep |  | 5 million atoms
159 | Intel Paragon/1024 |  | 24520 | CCM | .961 sec/ timestep |  | 10 million atoms
160 | ORNL Paragon/1024 |  | 24520 | FMS | 2 hours | Synthetic forces experiments [42] | 16995 vehicles
161 | Intel Paragon/1024 |  | 24520 | CCM | 8.54 sec/ timestep |  | 50 million atoms
162 | Paragon 1024 |  | 24520 | CCM | 82 sec/ timestep |  | 200 million particles
163 | Paragon 1024 |  | 24520 | CCM | 82 sec/ timestep |  | 400 million particles
164 | ORNL Paragon/1024 |  | 24520 | FMS | 2 hours | Synthetic forces experiments [42] | 16606 vehicles, 20,290 entities
165 | Intel Paragon/1024 | 1993 | 24520 | CCM | .0282 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 100,000 atoms
166 | Intel Paragon/1024 | 1993 | 24520 | CCM | .199 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 1 million atoms
167 | Intel Paragon/1024 | 1993 | 24520 | CCM | .914 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 5 million atoms
168 | Intel Paragon/1024 | 1993 | 24520 | CCM | .961 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 10 million atoms
169 | Intel Paragon/1024 | 1993 | 24520 | CCM | 8.54 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 50 million atoms
170 | Intel Paragon/1024 | 1995 | 24520 | CCM | 160 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation of 400 million particles using pair-wise 6-12 Lennard Jones potential [40] | 400 million atoms
171 | Cray T3D/400 | 1995 | 25881 | CWO |  | IFS, Integrated Forecasting System, T213 [59] | 640 grid points/latitude, 134,028 points/horizontal layer, 31 vertical layers
172 | Mercury Race (140 PowerPC 603e processors) | 1997 | 27113 | SIP |  | Large Mercury System shipped in 1997 [64] |
173 | Cray T3D/512 | 1993 | 32398 | CCM | .0293 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 100,000 atoms
174 | Cray T3D/512 | 1993 | 32398 | CCM | .205 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 1 million atoms
175 | Cray T3D/512 | 1993 | 32398 | CCM | .994 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 5 million atoms
176 | Cray T3D/512 | 1993 | 32398 | CCM | 1.85 CPUs/ timestep | MD simulation using short-range forces model applied to 3D configuration of liquid near solid state point [15] | 10 million atoms
177 | Cray T3D/512 | 1995 | 32398 | CFD | 500 timesteps | Steady-state parafoil simulation. 2 deg angle of attack. Reynolds number = 10 million. [52] | 38 million coupled nonlinear equations at every pseudo-timestep.
178 | Cray T3D/512 | 1995 | 32398 | CFD |  | Modeling paratroopers dropping from aircraft. Moving grid. Cargo aircraft travelling at 130 Knots. High Reynolds number. Smagorinsky turbulence model [52] | 880,000 tetrahedral elements for half of the domain.
179 | Cray T3D/512 | 1995 | 32398 | CFD |  | Fighter aircraft at Mach 2.0. [52] | 3D mesh of 185,483 nodes and 1,071,580 tetrahedral elements

205

| Machine | Year | CTP | Category | Time | Problem | Problem size
180 | Intel Paragon | mid 1990s | 44000 | CSM | <24 hours | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 6 million cells
181 | Intel Paragon | mid 1990s | 44000 | CSM | several restarts | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 20 million cells
182 | Intel Paragon | 1994 | 46000 | nuclear | overnight | 3D reduced physics simulation of transient dynamics of nuclear weapon [12,65]
183 | ASCI Red | 1997 | 46000 | CSM | few hundred hours | 3D modeling of explosive material impact on copper plate [12] |
184 | Origin2000/128 | 1997 | 46,928 | CEA |  | Radar cross section of VFY218 aircraft under 2 GHz radar wave [66] | 1.9 million unknowns
185 | Origin2000/192 | 1998 | 70368 | CFD | 400 hours | armor/anti-armor, 3-D |
186 | Origin2000/192 | 1998 | 70368 | CFD | months | 3D simulation of submarine with unsteady flow, fixed angle of attack, and moving body appendages and complex repulsors. [35] |
187 | ASCI Red/1024 | 1997 | 76000 | CSM | <25 hours | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 100 million cells
188 | ASCI Red/1024 | 1997 | 76000 | CSM | <50 hours | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 250 million cells
189 | ASCI Red/1024 | 1997 | 76000 | CSM | few hours | 3D shock physics simulation [12] | 2-4 million cells
190 |  |  | 80000 | SIP |  | Tier 2 UAV on-board data processing [20] |
191 | Cray T3E- 900/256 | 1997 | 91035 | CFD | 500 timesteps | Steady-state parafoil simulation, 10 deg angle of attack, Reynolds number = 10 million. [54] | 2.3 million equations every timestep
192 | Cray T3E- 900/256 | 1997 | 91035 | CWO | 590 hrs | Global ocean model "hindcast" [49] | 1/16 degree, 7 km resolution
193 | Cray T3E-900 256 nodes | 1998 | 91035 | CSM | 450,000 node hours | Grizzly breaching vehicle plow simulation, parametric studies, different soil conditions & blade speeds [67] | 2 to 4 million particles (soil, rock, mines, obstacles, etc.)
194 | ASCI++ | ?? | 50,000,000+ | nuclear | days | First principles 3D modeling

References
[1] Aloisio, G. and M. A. Bochicchio, "The Use of PVM with Workstation Clusters for Distributed SAR Data Processing," in High Performance Computing and Networking, Milan, May 3-5, 1995. Proceedings, Hertzberger, B. and G. Serazzi, Eds.: Springer, 1995, pp. 570-581.

[2] Liu, S. K., Numerical Simulation of Hypersonic Aerodynamics and the Computational Needs for the Design of an Aerospace Plane, RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 1992.

[3] Ballbaus Jr., W. F., "Supercomputing in Aerodynamics," in Frontiers of Supercomputing, Metropolis, N. et al, Eds. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986, pp. 195-216.

[4] Ewald, R. H., "An Overview of Computing at Los Alamos," in Supercomputers in Theoretical and Experimental Science, Devreese, J. T. and P. van Camp, Eds. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1985, pp. 199-216.

206

[5] Smith, N. P., "PAM Crash: HPC's First Killer App Adapts to New Needs," HPCWire, Mar 28, 1997 (Item 10955).

[6] Graves, R., "Supercomputers: A Policy Opportunity," in Supercomputers: a key to U.S. scientific, technological, and industrial preeminence, Kirkland, J. R. and J. H. Poore, Eds. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1987, pp. 129-140.

[7] Albrizio, R. et al, "Parallel/Pipeline Multiprocessor Architectures for SAR Data Processing," European Trans. on Telecommunication and Related Technologies, Vol. 2, No. 6, Nov.-Dec., 1991, pp. 635-642.

[8] Holst, T. L., "Supercomputer Applications in Computational Fluid Dynamics," in Supercomputing 88, Volume II: Science and Applications, Martin, J. L. and S. F. Lundstrom, Eds. Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1988, pp. 51-60.

[9] Binder, K., "Large-Scale Simulations in Condensed Matter Physics - The Need for a Teraflop Computer," International Journal of Modern Physics C, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1992, pp. 565-581.

[10] Chaput, E., C. Gacherieu, and L. Tourrette, "Experience with Parallel Computing for the Design of Transport Aircrafts at Aerospatiale," in High-Performance Computing and Networking. International Conference and Exhibition HPCNEurope 1996. Proceedings, Liddel, H. et al, Eds. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1996, pp. 128-135.

[11] Games, R. A., Benchmarking for Real-Time Embedded Scalable High Performance Computing, DARPA/Rome Program Review, May 6, 1997.

[12] Camp, W. J. et al, Interviews, Sandia National Laboratories, Dec. 11, 1997.

[13] Farhat, C., "Finite Element Analysis on Concurrent Machines," in Parallel Processing in Computational Mechanics, Adeli, H., Ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1992, ch. 7, pp. 183-217.

[14] Simon, H. D., W. R. Van Dalsem, and L. Dagum, "Parallel CFD: Current Status and Future Requirements," in Parallel Computational Fluid Dynamics: Implementation and Results, Simon, H. D., Ed. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1992, pp. 1-29.

[15] Plimpton, S., "Fast Parallel Algorithms for Short-Range Molecular Dynamics," Journal of Computational Physics, Vol. 117, 1995, pp. 1-19.

207

[16] Strietzel. M.. "Parallel Turbulence Simulation Based on MPI," in High-Performance Computing and Networking. International Conference and Exhibition HPCN Europe 1996. Proceedings, Liddel, H. et al, Eds. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1996. pp 283-289.

[17] Kimsey, K. and S. Schraml, Interview, Army Research Lab, Aberdeen Proving Ground, June 12, 1997.

[18] Shang, J. S. and K. C. Hill, "Performance of a Characteristic-Based, 3-D, Time-Domain Maxwell Equations Solver on the Intel Touchstone Delta," Applied Computational Electromagnetics Society Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, May, 1995, pp. 52-62.

[19] U.S. Navy To Use Mercury RACE Systems for Advanced Radar, HPCWire, Jun 27, 1997 (Item 11471).

[20] Goodman, S., P. Wolcott, and G. Burkhart, Executive Briefing: An Examination of High-Performance Computing Export Control Policy in the 1990s, IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, 1996.

[21] Pachter, R. et al, "The Design of Biomolecules Using Neural Networks and the Double Iterated Kalman Filter," in Toward Teraflop Computing and New Grand Challenges. Proceedings of the Mardi Gras '94 Conference, Feb. 10-12, 1994, Kalia R. K. and P. Vashishta Eds. Commack, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 1995, pp. 123-128.

[22] The Role of Supercomputers in Modern Nuclear Weapons Design, Department of Energy (Code NN-43), Apr. 27,1995.

[23] Shang, J. S., "Characteristic-Based Algorithms for Solving the Maxwell Equations in the Time Domain," IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 37, No. 3, June, 1995, pp. 15-25.

[24] Morgan, W. B. and J. Gorski, Interview, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Jan. 5, 1998.

[25] Shang, J. S., D. A. Calahan, and B. Vikstrom, "Performance of a Finite Volume CEM Code on Multicomputers," Computing Systems in Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1995, pp. 241-250.

[26] Hurwitz, M., Interview, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Aug. 6, 1997.

[27] Shang, J. S., "Time-Domain Electromagnetic Scattering Simulations on Multicomputers," Journal of Computational Physics, Vol. 128,1996, pp. 381-390.

[28] Hack, J. J., "Computational design of the NCAR community climate model," Parallel Computing, Vol. 21, No. 10,1995, pp. 1545-1569.

208

[29] Ghaffari, F. and J. M. Luckring, Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics.
http://wk122.nas.nasa.gov/NAS/TechSums/9596/Show?7126.

[30] Chaderjian N. M. and S. M. Murman, Unsteady Flow About the F-18 Aircraft,
http://wk122.nas.nasa.gov/NAS/TechSums/9596/Show?7031.

[31 ] Potsdam, M. A., Blended Wing/Body Aircraft,
http://wk122.nas.nasa.gov/NAS/TechSums/9596/Show?7650.

[32] Rice, B. M., "Molecular Simulation of Detonation," in Modern Methods for Multidimensional Dynamics Computations in Chemistry, Thompson, D. L., Ed.: World Scientific Publishing Co., 1998, . (To appear)

[33] Mercury RACE Selected for Navy Sonar System, HPCWire, Jul 26, 1996 (Item 8916).

[34] Sturek, W. et al, Parallel Finite Element Computation of Missile Flow Fields, Preprint 96012, University of Minnesota Army HPC Research Center, Minneapolis, MN, 1996.

[35] Boris, J. et al, Interview, Naval Research Lab, Washington, DC, June 9, 1997.

[36] Nakano, A., R. K Kalia, and P. Vashishta, "Million-Particle Simulations of Fracture in Silica Glass: Multiresolution Molecular Dynamics Approach on Parallel Architectures," in Toward Teraflop Computing ana' New Grand Challenges. Proceedings of the Mardi Gras '94 Conference, Feb. 10-12, 1994, Kalia, R. K. and P. Vashishta, Eds. Commack, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 1995, pp. 111-122.

[37] Pankajakshan, R. and W. R. Briley, "Efficient parallel flow solver," in Contributions to DoD Mission Success from High-Performance Computing 1996.:, 1996, p. 73.

[38] Conlon, J., "Propelling power of prediction: Boeing/NASA CRA leverages the IBM SP2 in rotor analysis," Insights, No. 3, Sep, 1997, pp. 2-9.

[39] Faulkner, T., "Origin2000 update: Studies show CFL3D can obtain 'reasonable' performance," NASNews, Vol. 2, No. 17, November-December, 1997 (http://science.nas.nasa.gov/Pubs/NASnews/97/11/).

[40] Deng, Y. et al, "Molecular Dynamics for 400 Million Particles with Short-Range Interactions," in High Performance Computing Symposium 1995 "Grand Challenges in Computer Simulation" Proceedings of the 1995 Simulation Multiconference, Apr. 9-13, 1995, Phoenix AZ, Tentner, A., Ed.: The Society for Computer Simulation, 1995, pp. 95-100.

209

[41] Rowell. J . "Rome Labs Deploys Paragon. 32 HIPPIs for COTS Radar Processing," HPCWire, Dec 4, 1995 (Item 7556).

[42] Brunett, S. and T Gottschalk, Large-scale metacomputing gamework for ModSAF. A realtime entity simulation, Center for Advanced Computing Research, California Institute of Technology (Draft copy distributed at SC97, November, 1997).

[43] Rosmond, T., Interview, Naval Research Laboratory, Monterey, July 28, 1997

[44] Sawdey, A. C., M. T. O'Keefe, and W. B. Jones, "A general programming model for developing scalable ocean circulation applications," in ECMWF Workshop on the Use of Parallel Processors in Meteorology, Jan. 6, 1997. :, 1997,.

[45] Drake, J., "Design and performance of a scalable parallel community climate model," Parallel Computing, Vol. 21, No. 10, 1995, pp. 1571-1591.

[46] Wehner, M. F., "Performance of a distributed memory finite difference atmospheric general circulation model," Parallel Computing, Vol. 21, No. 10,1995, pp. 1655-1675.

[47] Balsara, J. and R. Namburu, Interview, CEWES, Aug. 21,1997.

[48] Wallcraft, A., Interview, Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVPCEANO), Stennis Space Center, Aug. 20, 1997.

[49] Sela, J. G., "Weather forecasting on parallel architectures," Parallel Computing, Vol. 21, No. 10,1995, pp. 1639-1654.

[50] Jann, D. E. and K. K. Droegemeier, "Proof of Concept: Operational testing of storm-scale numerical weather prediction," CAPS New Funnel, Fall, 1996, pp. 1-3 (The University of Oklahoma).

[51] Tezduyar, T. et al, "Flow simulation and high performance computing." Computational Mechanics, Vol. 18, 1996, pp. 397-412.

[52] Tezduyar, T., V. Kalro, and W. Garrard, Parallel Computational Methods for 3D Simulation of a Parafoil with Prescribed Shape Changes, Preprint 96-082, Army HPC Research Center, Minneapolis, 1996.

[53] Muzio, P. and T. E. Tezduyar, Interview, Army HPC Research Center, Aug. 4, 1997.

[54] Stein, K. et al, Parallel Finite Element Computations on the Behavior of Large Ram-Air Parachutes, Preprint 96-014, University of Minnesota Army HPC Research Center, Minneapolis, MN, 1996.

210

[55] Stein. K.. A. A. Johnson, and T. Tezduyar. "Three-dimensional simulation of round parachutes," in Contributions to DoD Mission Success from High Performance Computing 1996. :, 1996, p. 41.

[56] Army High Performance Computing Research Center,, Army HPC Research Center, Minneapolis, MN, 1996.

[57] Papados, P. P. and J. T. Baylot, "Structural Analysis of Hardened Structures," in Highlights in Computational Science and Engineering. Vicksburg: U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 1996, pp. 64-65.

[58] Barros, S. R. M., "The IFS model: A parallel production weather code," Parallel Computing, Vol. 21, No. 10, 1995, pp. 1621-1638.

[59] Droegemeier, K. K. et al, "Weather Prediction: A Scalable Storm-Scale Model," in High performance computing: problem solving with parallel and vector architectures, Sabot, G. W., Ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1995, pp. 45-92.

[60] King, P. et al, "Airblast Effects on Concrete Buildings," in Highlights in Computational Science and Engineering. Vicksburg: U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 1996, pp. 34-35.

[61 ] Ramamurti, R. and W. C. Sandberg, "Simulation of flow past a swimming tuna," in Contributions to DoD Mission Success from High Performance Computing 1996.:, 1996, p. 52.

[62] Taft, J., "Initial SGI Origin2000 Tests Show Promise for CFD Codes," NASNews, Vol. 2, No. 25, July-August, 1997 (http://www.sci.nas.nasa.gov/Pubs/NASnews/97/07/article01.html).

[63] Mercury Delivers 38 GFLOPS With 200-MHz PowerPC Processors, HPCWire, Jan 31, 1997 (Item 10694).

[64] Nielsen, D., Private Communication, Jan. 15, 1998.

[65] NCSA's Origin2000 Solves Large Aircraft Scatterer Problems, HPCWire, Jun 13, 1997 (Item 11365).

[66] Homer, D. A., Interview, CEWES, Aug. 22,1997.

211

[67] Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative: PathForward Project Description., December 27, 1996. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratory, 1996.

Table of Contents